Even experienced legal researchers and writers can make citation errors that undermine the credibility and effectiveness of their work. As an examiner of countless undergraduate projects, master's dissertations, and PhD theses, I have observed recurring citation mistakes that plague legal writing in Nigeria. This article identifies these common pitfalls and provides practical guidance on how to avoid them, with specific reference to the NALT Citation Guide.
1. Inconsistent Citation Formats
Perhaps the most prevalent citation error is inconsistency in format. Many writers mix different citation styles within a single document, using OSCOLA in one section, MLA in another, and perhaps a hybrid style elsewhere. This inconsistency creates confusion for readers and suggests a lack of attention to detail.
Common manifestations:
- Using both 'v.' and 'v' in case names
- Inconsistent use of italics for case names
- Mixing round and square brackets for years
- Varying formats for page references
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide provides a consistent format for all types of legal sources. For example, case names should always be italicized with 'v' (not 'v.') between parties, years of reports should be in square brackets, and page numbers should be presented without 'p' or 'pp' prefixes. Adhering strictly to these conventions throughout your document ensures consistency.
Example of correct NALT format: Abacha v Fawehinmi [2000] FWLR (Pt 4) 533
2. Improper Use of Latin Expressions
Many legal writers continue to use outdated Latin expressions in their citations, either incorrectly or unnecessarily. This practice can create confusion and is contrary to the NALT guide's emphasis on clarity and accessibility.
Common manifestations:
- Overuse of 'supra', 'infra', 'op. cit.', and 'loc. cit.'
- Incorrect application of 'ibid.'
- Using 'et seq.' instead of specific page ranges
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide has abolished most Latin expressions previously used in legal citations, with the exception of "ibid." which is still used to repeat a citation from the immediately preceding footnote. For cross-references to earlier footnotes, NALT uses the format (n...) where "n" stands for "note" and the number indicates the footnote where the information was first cited.
Example of correct NALT format:
1. Bethel Uzoma Ihugba, Introduction to Legal Research Method and Legal Writing (Malthouse Press 2020) 45.
2. ibid.
3. EI Alemika, 'Criminal Justice System and Respect for Human Rights: Problems and Imperative for Reform', Human Rights Review: An International Human Rights Journal [2011] (12) (2) 25.
4. Ihugba (n 1) 50.
3. Incomplete Citation Information
Many citations lack essential information, making it difficult or impossible for readers to locate the original source. This undermines one of the primary purposes of citation: to facilitate verification and further research.
Common manifestations:
- Missing page numbers or paragraph references
- Incomplete case citations (missing year, report series, or part number)
- Book citations without publisher information
- Journal articles without volume or issue numbers
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide specifies all required elements for each type of source. For cases, this includes the names of parties, year, law report, part number, and page number. For books, it includes author, title, publisher, and year. For journal articles, it includes author, article title, journal name, year, volume, issue, and page number. Always check that your citations include all these elements.
Example of complete NALT format for a journal article: EI Alemika, 'Criminal Justice System and Respect for Human Rights: Problems and Imperative for Reform', Human Rights Review: An International Human Rights Journal [2011] (12) (2) 25.
4. Incorrect Case Name Formatting
The formatting of case names is a frequent source of errors, particularly regarding italicization, abbreviation, and the presentation of party names.
Common manifestations:
- Failure to italicize case names
- Using 'versus' or 'vs' instead of 'v'
- Incorrect abbreviation of institutional parties
- Inconsistent capitalization
NALT solution:
According to the NALT Citation Guide, case names should be italicized, with 'v' (not 'v.' or 'versus') between the names of parties. The names of the parties should be presented as they appear in the law report, with appropriate abbreviations for institutional parties (e.g., 'FRN' for 'Federal Republic of Nigeria').
Example of correct NALT format: FRN v Saraki [2016] LPELR-40013(SC)
5. Misuse of Quotation Marks and Italics
The inconsistent or incorrect use of quotation marks and italics in citations can create confusion and suggest a lack of attention to detail.
Common manifestations:
- Using double quotation marks instead of single for article titles
- Failing to italicize book and journal titles
- Italicizing article titles
- Inconsistent application of formatting rules
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide specifies that article titles should be enclosed in single quotation marks (not italicized), while book and journal titles should be italicized (not enclosed in quotation marks). Consistent application of these rules enhances the clarity and professionalism of your citations.
Example of correct NALT format: EI Alemika, 'Criminal Justice System and Respect for Human Rights: Problems and Imperative for Reform', Human Rights Review: An International Human Rights Journal [2011] (12) (2) 25.
6. Incorrect Citation of Online Sources
With the increasing reliance on online resources, the proper citation of electronic sources has become essential. However, many writers struggle with the correct format for these citations.
Common manifestations:
- Omitting access dates for online sources
- Providing URLs without proper context
- Failing to distinguish between different types of online sources
- Omitting author information for online articles
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide provides specific formats for citing online sources, including websites, electronic journals, and online databases. For all online sources, the URL should be enclosed in angle brackets and followed by the access date. If a publication is available in both print and online formats, cite the print version unless there is a specific reason to cite the online version.
Example of correct NALT format for an online source: Nigerian Bar Association, 'Code of Conduct for Legal Practitioners' (2007) <https://www.nigerianbar.org.ng/index.php/downloads/send/3-publications/5-code-of-conduct-for-legal-practitioners> accessed 15 March 2025.
7. Improper Cross-Referencing
Cross-referencing to earlier citations is a common source of confusion and errors, particularly when writers attempt to use abbreviated forms without proper introduction.
Common manifestations:
- Using abbreviated titles without first providing the full citation
- Incorrect footnote numbers in cross-references
- Using outdated Latin expressions for cross-references
- Inconsistent formatting of cross-references
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide uses a simple cross-referencing system with the format (n...) where "n" stands for "note" and the number indicates the footnote where the information was first cited. When using this format, include the author's surname followed by the cross-reference and the specific page being cited (if different from the original citation).
Example of correct NALT format for cross-referencing: Ihugba (n 1) 50.
8. Failure to Distinguish Primary and Secondary Sources
Legal writing requires clear distinction between primary sources (legislation, case law) and secondary sources (books, articles, commentaries). Many writers fail to make this distinction clear in their citations.
Common manifestations:
- Citing a textbook instead of the primary source it discusses
- Failing to cite the specific section of legislation
- Mixing primary and secondary sources without clear distinction
- Over-reliance on secondary sources
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide provides distinct formats for primary and secondary sources, making it clear to readers which type of authority is being cited. When discussing legal principles, always cite the primary source (case or legislation) directly, using secondary sources to support your analysis rather than as substitutes for primary authorities.
Example of correct NALT format for legislation: Evidence Act, 2011, s 34.
9. Inconsistent Abbreviations
The inconsistent use of abbreviations in citations can create confusion and suggest a lack of rigor in research and writing.
Common manifestations:
- Using different abbreviations for the same law report
- Failing to explain uncommon abbreviations
- Inconsistent formatting of abbreviations
- Creating non-standard abbreviations
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide provides standard abbreviations for common law reports and legal terms. Use these consistently throughout your document. For less common sources, provide the full name at first citation, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses, and then use the abbreviation in subsequent citations.
Example of correct NALT format: Abacha v Fawehinmi [2000] FWLR (Pt 4) 533
10. Neglecting the Bibliography
Many writers focus on footnotes but neglect the bibliography, resulting in inconsistencies between in-text citations and the list of sources at the end of the document.
Common manifestations:
- Sources cited in footnotes but missing from the bibliography
- Inconsistent formatting between footnotes and bibliography
- Improper organization of the bibliography
- Failure to separate different types of sources
NALT solution:
The NALT Citation Guide provides specific formats for bibliography entries, which differ slightly from footnote citations. In the bibliography, author names should be inverted (surname first), sources should be arranged alphabetically by author surname, and different types of sources (cases, legislation, books, articles) should be listed separately. Ensure that every source cited in your footnotes appears in your bibliography.
Example of correct NALT format for a book in bibliography: Ihugba, Bethel Uzoma, Introduction to Legal Research Method and Legal Writing (Malthouse Press 2020).
Conclusion
Avoiding these common citation mistakes will significantly enhance the quality and credibility of your legal writing. The NALT Citation Guide provides a comprehensive framework for accurate and consistent citation of all types of legal sources relevant to Nigerian legal research.
Remember that proper citation is not merely a technical requirement but a fundamental aspect of effective legal communication. It demonstrates your attention to detail, respect for intellectual property, and commitment to the highest standards of academic and professional integrity.
To assist you in avoiding these common mistakes, this website offers a citation generator that automatically formats citations according to the NALT guidelines, as well as a comprehensive glossary of citation terms and an FAQ section addressing common questions about the NALT Citation Guide.
By mastering the NALT citation format and avoiding these common errors, you will enhance the quality and impact of your legal writing, whether you are a law student, academic researcher, or legal practitioner.